I The founding of the dynasty

The concept of Empire that would last for some 2000 years had been handed down to posterity by the Han Dynasty, as the central imperial government earned much credit during the first couple of centuries AD and remained unquestioned afterwards.
During the Ch’in and early under the Han Dynasty, the exercise of power was justified in material terms, but soon the Emperors of Han sought moral and intellectual justification to that power; the process took time, but eventually succeeded at the turn of the millennium. Their power became undisputed as it came from “higher powers”. Also, the whole administrative system will be the result of two centuries of dispute between “modernists” and “reformists”, the first reaching the highest of their might around 100BC, before the second slowly gained recognition during the next century. They both had in common, however, the belief that China was better off under a single rule.

Civil war and the victory of Liu Pang

Soon after its beginning in 221 BC, the rule of Ch’in started to show some failures, especially after 210. By discarding the system of fiefs, strong local authority was lost, authority that the new administrative system had not had the time to enforce before the rebellion broke out. Its leaders were of two kinds: those who were of modest origins and chose that path to get rid of Ch’in’s harsh rule; and those who had enjoyed a higher position in a former royal family or in the army.

The fighting can be divided into four phases:

· The peasant uprising: Ch’en She and Wu Kuang were reputedly those who first openly challenged the regime. They had been leading a party of conscripts and failed to arrive in time, due to heavy rains. Their punishment being death, they chose to take their chances and to initiate a rebellion; those who followed them murdered several isolated officials. But their untrained troops were easily defeated by Chang Han, Ch’in capable general in 208. Ch’en She and Wu Kuang were killed by their own confederates, who resented their claims for authority. Despite that, Ch’en She received official recognition from 195 onwards. At the same time, Hsiang Liang and Hsiang Yü, from Ch’u, were joined by Liu Pang, a low-ranking official from peasant origin in P’ei, central China, to form a much more formidable threat.

· The establishment of independent kingdoms: Hsiang Liang and Hsiang Yü reconstituted the kingdom of Ch’u; other kingdoms followed in the east and center of China. Ch’in general Chan Han failed to destroy the insurgents when he was defeated by Hsiang Yu at one of Chao stronghold’s gates. At the same time, Liu Pang successfully entered the center of Ch’in’s original power base. He soon defeated its army and entered the capital, showing exemplary behavior, until the arriving of Hsiang Yü (see chapter 1).

· The creation of the eighteen kingdoms: Hsiang Yü sought to come back to the situation that prevailed even before the Seven Kingdoms, by dividing the former empire into eighteen kingdoms, after having Ch’u’s powerful king removed, probably in the hope to weaken and subdue them more easily. He sent Liu Pang, his potential greater threat, to the remote territory of Han-Chung. This is where Liu Pang got his dynastic title; Hsiang Yü assumed the title of overlord, and ruled a 19^th kingdom.

· From the contest between Hsiang Yu and Liu Pang to the founding of the Han Dynasty: Having been the first officer to enter Ch’in’s power base, Kuan-chung, Liu Pang should have been declared its king. Having been denied it, he opened a campaign against Hsiang Yü. Liu Pang first re-entered and won over Kuan-chung. At the news of the assassination of Ch’u’s displaced king (206 BC), he marched on Hsiang Yü’s base but was defeated. However, he could escape and gather new forces thanks to his close comrades, Hsiao Ho and Han Hsin, who had secured the strategic city of Hsing-yang. After a second defeat in 204, Hsiang Yü had military superiority but couldn’t use it to his advantage since Han Hsin had won all Eastern China, accomplishment for which he would receive the title of king of Ch’i in 203 by Liu Pang. He and Hsiang Yü first came to an agreement to divide China between them in 203; but at the instigation of his supporters, Liu Pang’s forces were able to strike the decisive blow in 202, and he won over the whole of China, while Hsiang Yü committed suicide.

Kao-ti’s initial settlement

Liu Pang was left as the undisputed master of China with no real concurrent, and confederates who had taken possession of all the lands. He therefore claimed the title of Emperor (202) on the base of his military achievement under the name Kao-ti. He followed Ch’in traditions in terms of religious practices (a lot of attention was devoted to the five elements theory, and attributes of Water, the chosen patron symbol for his House, were to be worshiped), administration (based on the Legalist theory of government) and the choice of a capital (based on strategic and practical considerations).

The Emperor was advised by three senior statesmen (who would soon become only two): the chancellor (the highest position), the imperial counselor (executive) and the supreme commander. Just below them were nine ministers. All major responsibilities were shared by two or more senior officials.

Generally, one would be appointed by the Emperor to a senior position in the government. The choice could be motivated by the carrier, patronization, or the relation to a leading family. Yet from 115 BC, they would be more and more recruited on merit only.

Most of the time, reports or memorials would be presented for consideration to the highest level by central or provincial officials; and the resulting orders or recommendations would be conveyed downwards through the hierarchy of officials, once “approved” by the Emperor. Rarely, requests for advice would come from the throne.

The organization of the provinces

Here lies the biggest difference between Ch’in and Han. In order to retain the support of those who, during the previous years, established themselves as kings in some ten kingdoms, Kao-ti, as Emperor, decided to divide the Empire into administrative units in the west, and acknowledge the ten kingdoms in the east and north. As long as the kings would remain faithful to the Emperor, not only would they control, eventually break, local dissidents, but they would also help to protect the capital and territories of the Empire from foreign attacks.

The problem was thus to secure the loyalty of their rulers. Therefore, kings were one by one displaced and relatives of the Emperor put at their place (except in Chang-sha). In 195 BC, relatives of Kao-ti were covering 2/3 of the Empire. Each king was at the head of an administration that was a replica of the imperial one. They had to train armed forces, but could not mobilize them without an express order of the Emperor.

The commanderies were divided into counties and ‘hou’, which were given to individuals and passed on from generation to generation, either for civil or military merit, or to the supporters of the Emperor in a first time. Later, it would be by virtue of a relationship with one of the kings or with relatives of the Emperor himself.

Foreign relations

China was involved in external relations, both in the north and the south. In the north, the leader of the Hsiung-nu had form a confederation that was contiguous to the ten kingdoms. Their attacks were powerful and they enjoyed strategic advantages over an Empire that was recovering from internal warfare, and China had no choice but to accommodate the Hsiung-nu by sending them a princess as a bride, and presents every year.

There was no threat in the south. An independent kingdom was established by a native Chinese, Chao To, but he showed no sign of animosity, and resumed normal relations with China. There is no clear acknowledgment of direct contact with either Japan or Korea.

II: The Consolidation of the Empire