Ali-Kosh (or Ali-Kush in the CAH, or even Bus Mordeh from the name of the earliest phase identified on the site), in the Deh Luran plane in Iran, may well have been contemporary of Jarmo (about 7000-5700). Its situation near the Iranian Plateau allowed the site to have sufficient rainfalls for dry farming, and it was only 4 meters above a winter grassland, which obviously attracted the first inhabitants who were goat herders. This site went through 3 distinct phases. The Bus Mordeh phase (7000-6500) saw an economy dominated by hunters-gatherers, although they started to grow a couple of domestic plants as well. The houses seem to have been circular in form and of slabs of clay, pottery was unknown and the tools, mainly flints, are alike those of Karim Shahir.

The Ali-Kosh phase (6500-6000) saw a lot of progress made in the complete domestication of some animals and of plants. The walls are now of mud-bricks and plastered. Obsidian is found alongside flint, and the stone industry is now closer to that of Jarmo. Also to be noted the discovery of hammered copper and weaving.

With the Muhammad Ja’far phase (6000-5700) we come at last to the first use of pottery, which seems to have originated from the western highlands. There is a great increase of domesticated animals, but a decline of cultivated plants. The houses are now on stone foundations and the finds in tools show an unpreceded variety. The site will be deserted after this period.

In the Iranian highlands were found 2 mounds as old as Zawi Chemi, and one of them, Ganj-i-Dareh Tepe, had deposits of solid architecture, sign of a permanent settlement. Despite being composed of tents or huts, and thus being seasonal, the site of Tepe Sarab (6300-6000 (?)) was more advanced, with evidences for agriculture, some monochrome and painted ware also found in Tepe Guran (see below) and clay figurines of the Mother Goddess and naturalistic animals.

Tepe Guran (roughly 6500-5500) is in fact the name given to a total of 18 building levels. The first levels show seasonal occupation like at Tepe Sarab, but those occurred earlier. Bigger animals could be hunted and agriculture appears. From about 6300, the settlement rapidly becomes permanent, mud-brick houses replacing wooden huts. Pottery identical to that of upper Jarmo is developed, and will later (about 6050) become that known as Tepe Sarab, with finer ornamentation. During this same period, clay figurines occur, while metal is still unknown.

Syria and Lebanon (7^th and 6^th millennia)

Little is known about the culture and the people in these regions between the 10^th and 8^th millennia. The earliest remains thoroughly investigated are from the 7^th millenium at Ras Shamra and Tell Ramad (Syria), which developpment is linked to those of Jericho, Beidha and the Jordan Valley.

Jericho (Tell-Sultan), had been inhabited periodically during the mesolithic already[6], but continuous occupation began from before 9000. Some of the first levels are identified as Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (8350-7370). Pre-Pottery Neolithic B has more than 20 building levels and covers the 7^th millenium (7220-5850)[7], with large, rectangular and well-built houses divided into 1 main room and 1-2 ante-room(s), and which walls were plastered. Burial habits seem peculiar. Goat and plants were domesticated, which is unlike early Tell Ramad (before 6250). Otherwise, both sites show great similarities, while those with Ras Shamra are less obvious.[8]

Jericho: neolithic tower

Later Tell Ramad (6250-5950) shows great progress in domestication and agriculture, and the apparition of white chalky ware, as well as crumbly pottery. At that time, such ware was still unknown in Palestinia. The stone industry was, again, mainly flint with a faint presence of obsidian.[9]

The site of Ras Shamra shows indeed the use of various forms of pottery simultaneously, forms that derived from those found earlier in other regions, like the Anatolian Plateau. The technics improve as they make slowly their way south to Byblos, then to Palestine and Jordan. They also arrived to Cyprus, but pottery was soon abandoned for magnificent stone vessels (6000). The houses are rectangular and their walls and floors are plastered. The use of clay, as the stone (flint) industry, resembles that of Catal Huyuk at about the same time.

The period known as Ras Shamra V A is contemporary with that of Early Neolithic at Byblos (6000-5400). Both pottery and flint industry are developed, while the work on obsidian continuous to be based on that of Catal Huyuk.

Generally speaking, inventions and improvements tend to spread from Anatolia southwards until Palestinia and the Jordan valley, which seem to turn back to nomadism at around 6000. Similar observations can be made for regions east of the Euphrates like Buqras, where the early farmers ultimately fail to establish permanent settlements for a prolonged period of time. One of the reasons given is that maybe plants imported from the mountains where not then accustomed to the climatic conditions of the lowlands. Buqras was an early village where 3 phases can be distinguished by the progresses made in architecture (from pisé to mud-brick walls) in pottery (some sherds appear in the last phase) and in the economy (domestication in the last levels).

The Mesopotamian Plain

It is thanks to a pluviosity enough for dry farming that people started to settle in northern Mesopotamia to spread southwards when irrigation was known. The first traces of settlements in the plain are found by the site of Tell Hassunah, which gave its name to the earliest pottery making culture[10], supposedly beginning in the early 6^th millennium BC (6000-5250). Soon, agriculture follows, extending southwards till Tell es-Sawwan. The architecture and the cemetery discovered there show great sophistication, especially from the third phase (Hassunah III), as one of the buildings was identified as a temple and the graves contained numerous objects among which vessels and various types of statuettes. Houses typically had multiple rooms arranged in fine rectangular plans. Tools in the first phase are typical of an agricultural economy; some arrowheads look like those found in Anatolia, maybe a proof of contact. After that, the stone industry became poorer.

But what remains the most sticking feature of Hassunah is of course the pottery. The first type of ware appearing (Hassunah Ia) is unpainted fine burnished bowls along with coarse light-coloured jars. It has similarities with that of Jarmo at the same time and seem to have been distributed widely around its native area. In phases Ib and II, the plain ware coexists with a simple one that is painted or incised. This latest pottery show great improvement both in form and decoration (although the surface is now unburnished) from Hassunah III and became a standard of Hassunah culture. Also to be noted that it is at that time that appears an imported pottery, the Samarra ware.

There isn’t too much known about the Samarran culture (5500-4800[11]) outside pottery. As its origins lie farther south, people must have mastered some form of irrigation to produce enough food[12]. Therefore, agriculture must have been the principle activity in this mixed economy. The pottery in itself is more sophisticated than that of Hassunah, with the introduction of naturalistic patterns (humans, animals and vegetals), some imitating motion, on top of rich geometric ones. Its influence can be noticed in Syria, by the Turkish border or in the Eridu. It is finally contemporary with the next culture to develop, the Halaf culture.

The Halaf ware can be found simultaneously with Samarra’s at Tell Hassunah by 5300, both completely replacing the local ware; this overlap can be witnessed in many other sites, including that of Tell Halaf, that gave its name to the culture that spread as far as to the Anatolian plateau north and the foothills of the Taurus, but didn’t reach as far south as the Samarran ware. The origins of Halaf are still unknown for sure, some theories placing it somewhere near Khabur, or between the Euphrates and the Jaghjagha rivers.

The most representative site is Arpachiyah, where 3 phases –Early, Middle and Late Halaf- can be distinguished. In middle Halaf, the famous tholoi appear, circular domed houses on stone foundation (up to 19 m. diameter with an ante-room). The largest buildings appeared at the center of the village, suggesting they were probably used as shrines. It is only in Late Halaf that houses’ remains show several rectangular rooms, with walls of pisé (no mud-bricks were used in Mesopotamia until the ‘Ubaid period). Tholos houses are found in a vast area including Nizip in Turkey.

The stone industry used flint as well as obsidian, show a great diversity in tools, and developed also ornamental objects, some of them being the most beautiful exemples found in early cultures (vases, beads, necklace links….). Yet the statues of Mother Goddess are mostly of clay. Also to be noted that Halaf used both lead and copper, a first in Mesopotamia.

Everything suggests the economy was based on mixed farming, with full time specialization in pottery and metalworking among others. The number of different workshops suggests also that the village produced lots of goods and therefore was a center of trade. The specialization probably helps explain why the ware found in Arpachiyah is far superior compared to that of other Halaf centers found in Syria. In Early Halaf are found shallow bowls along with simple ones, decorated by simple geometric designs and lines enclosed in panels, as well as naturalistic animals. Typical of Arpachiya are also cream-bowls with beveled base. In Middle Halaf, the geometric patterns become much more sophisticated, and some shapes are reminiscent of metallurgy. By Late Halaf, the ware found in northern Iraq show beautiful polychrome patterns, especially on plates and vases.

Also, one must underline the great homogeneity in shapes and style over time and within the large area where Halaf ware is present, despite local characteristics. Besides, this ware show similarities, especially in terms of patterns (animals, double-axe….), with Anatolian ware, whereas it has little in common with either Hassunah or Samarra. This fact has led some speculation about the origins of Halaf culture, maybe developed by nomadic or semi-nomadic people who were from the foothills of the Taurus, and therefore aware of the Anatolian cultures, although this far, nothing’s for certain.

West of Yunus and Tell Turlu, it seems that the import of Halaf culture has stimulated and influenced local traditions, as seem to indicate evidences found in the Amuq plain and Ras Shamra. Some Halaf shapes are adopted in ware, and motifs are mixed with some typical of Samarra or changed (for instance, the “egg-and-dot” becoming an eye pattern), giving birth to the “Syrian Halaf” ware. With time, local assimilation of those foreign influences become more evident, up to the point where a whole new monochrome, red-wash ware appears, and coexists with another ware clearly a development of local pottery.

Finally, sites like Tell Ramad and Byblos show no architectural remains, coarse pottery and old Neolithic stone industry, with apparently a sharpe decline in prosperity which leads, by the end of the period (about 4500, contemporary with Late Halaf), to a return to nomadism and barbarism.

Susiana[13] and Southern Mesopotamia

In the area of Deh Luran, after the abandonment of Ali-Kush (see above), we can pick up, some time later (about 5500?), with cultural development in the region at Tepe Sabz, where the lowest levels are a continuation to the Muhammad Ja’far phase. The same rectangular rooms and mud-brick walls appear, with now pisé used for interior walls. Also pottery typical of the Muhammad Ja’far phase at Ali-Kush is present alongside Susiana ware. Agriculture is now solidly implanted, as is the domestication of cattle, goats and sheep. Weaving is known, and inspired textile motifs found on pottery. Several other sites like this one with Susiana I ware can be found in the region of the lowlands of Khuzistan.

We have until now only a partial view of the ware of the region, called Susiana. This is a buff ware painted mainly in black or brown with most of the ornament in reserve and closed patterns, with the shapes showing some similarities with Hassunah, Samarra or even with ware from west Iran. This Susiana ware knows little development over time in terms of shape, while locally, naturalistic ornaments appear, as well as some stylized motifs also found in Halaf pottery (flowers, double-axe….). It is the relations between this culture, that of western Iran (Giyan) and that of Southern Mesopotamia (Hajji Muhammad) that will give birth to the famous ‘Ubaid culture.

Further west and south-west, in lower Mesopotamia (later known as the land of Sumer), there is no occupation until irrigation allows dry farming in the area (about 5500). The earliest signs are found at Eridu, situated some 320km SE from Baghdad[14] (levels XIX to XV), which gave its name to the culture of the area at the time. The first buildings were probably temporary, as they left no trace, but from then, architecture shows steady improvements: a shrine appears at level XVI, replaced by another one, still simple but larger in size (the improvements will be even more important with later cultures, see chapter 4).

The most remarkable feature though is the pottery: well-tempered buff or reddish ware painted in glossy black or dark brown, with shape showing similarities mainly with Susiana (as well as the type of decoration), but also with Samarra; even some “husking-trays” have been found, a typical feature of Hassunah. All this probably indicates that the early Eridu culture finds its origins in Khuzistan, where it developed before arriving already fully fledged in lower Mesopotamia. This is this culture that will develop into Hajji Muhammad, which will spread all over Sumer.

The most representative site is that of Qal’at Hajji Muhammad, although the best exemple of architecture of this period can be found at Eridu, where the temples will set the bases on which the all the later temples in Mesopotamia will be developed. The economy is dominated by mixed farming. The pottery shows great continuity, still in resemblance to that of Susiana, although the colors change from chocolate to green, mauve or red. At Eridu, another style of pottery appears alongside, that kown as ‘Ubaid in the latest Hajji Muhammad levels (XIV-VIII). ‘Ubaid clearly appears as a continuity to Hajji Muhammad.

The most important deduction one can make from this cultural development concerns the origins of the Sumerians. They are formally identified as such through the first appearance of literature in the region. They were long believed to have arrived late from the highlands. However, the architectural continuity from Eridu until the Uruk period when Sumerians are first identified as such shows that they were indeed the first settlers in south Mesopotamia, coming down from the Zagros mountains once mastering irrigation.

The Iranian plateau

It is in central Zagros that pottery seems to have been first invented (about 6500), spreading then to Khuzistan southwards and Jarmo northwards. On the east lies the Iranian plateau. There are found cultures that may have been contemporary with Hassunah and Samarra (notably Sialk), but not much is known about them outside pottery. A few rectangular houses were located at different levels at Hajji Firuz that were dated between 5537 and 5132. The pottery itself was simple both in form (few different shapes) and design (red or pink on cream, unsophisticated geometrical patterns).

The Dalme culture in the region of Urmia shows great improvements in terms of patterns (although naturalistic ones are still notably absent), but little in terms of architecture. It may well have developed at the same time as Halaf (4210). It must also be noted that unpainted ware decorated by impression of various objects was found at the top levels of the Dalme culture’s sites, and distributed in a wider area than its predecessor.

Another culture developing in this area is the so-called Sialk culture. Little is known in terms of architecture (probably similar to that of late Hajji Firuz) and economy, although it seems that it relied mainly on mixed farming. Metallurgy evidences are also found in the first levels. The only well known feature- again- is pottery, which was at first brown covered by a red or cream slip and with geometric ornaments. During the second phase, naturalistic designs appear and the quality improves greatly, and this continues during the phase after that, contemporary with Ubaid and the Uruk.

Although much remains to be discovered, it seems that the region has played an important role in both Iraqi and Eastern Turkestan (Anau, see below) cultures.

Southern Turkestan

Delimited by the Caspian Sea, the high ranges of mountains west and south and the Kara Kum desert, this is where Central Asia begins. The developments until settled life are quite similar to what was described for other Near East regions, with traces of Mesolithic and early Neolithic cultures found in caves. From then, developments follow two different courses: in Ashkhabad, farmers used pottery from the start, whereas east in Gar-i-Mar, there was first an aceramic phase, followed by one which was marked both by pottery and mixed farming. The incised pottery was probably influenced by that of Namazga II (about 5300, contemporary with Halaf, see below). One has to note that those technics, which were imported from the West, have spread both east (Turkestan, Aral Sea) and west (SE Europe), thanks to trade (the exotic turquoise found at Ali-Kush by 6000).

The site for the Jeitun culture lies 30km from Ashkhabad. The individual houses discovered there were square, with plastered walls made of pisé, and adjoining storage rooms. The economy was dominated by mixed farming and hunting (very few signs of domestication), while the flint industry saw a lot of sickle blades, but also microlithic elements derived from those used by proto-neolithic hunters. Metal was unknown and pottery simple.

Surprisingly enough, the village’s plan is closer to those founds in SE Europe than Near East, but outside that aspect, there are much similarities in the way the houses are built and the forms of ware, yet with marked individuality.

The next step of evolution appears at Anau Ia, but the only known feature is pottery that becomes richer in terms of decoration. The successive phase, Anau Ib, has been renamed Namazga I, where pottery shows great similarities to that of Central Iran (Sialk I 3-4) and, to a lesser degree, to Hassunah III-V and Samarra, with the appearance of the first non-geometric patterns. Two more particularities are wall-paintings found in shrines, with patterns ressembling those used in pottery, and clay figures of Mother Goddess with white paint decoration.

From the Ashkhabad area, the population spread as far as the Göksür oasis where the Dashliji site yields the best architectural remains of that culture. Mud-bricks are used for the first time, copper is found, domestication increases and textiles are painted.

Finally, the Namazga II culture appears, lasting one millennium (5300-4300), and is divided into Early and Late Namazga II, distinguished by different types of wares. From Early NII, the Göksür area will estranged itself from the Ashkhabad region, especially by using a less elaborate ware, the Yalangash ware (instead of the polychrome decoration and new forms, like cups and necked jars found west). However, the architecture of the oasis is quite remarkable, with settlements fortified by 0.5-1 m. thick walls provided by round tower-like houses, probably serving as dwellings. Party walls appear too, laying the bases for the future multi-roomed houses.

The Göksür ware follows the Yalangash, a bichrome (black-red) ware that now shows the influence of western Namazga II in terms of patterns and shapes, while west Namazga loses its polychrome ware to adopt a brown-yellow one. Both regions witness the same architectural developments, with now many-roomed houses along narrow streets, and hearths placed in the center of the room (instead of being in the corner as before).

Late Namazga II (contemporary with the end of Halaf) follow the same developments patterns as in the Near East, but with the persistence of local traditions in both pottery and architecture, and that will continue to be so during Namazga III and IV.[15]

[8] you can find very detailed descriptions about neolithic Jericho following the links on the http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Jericho_Tell_Sultan.html page, especially Neolithic 2 for more explanations, like an interpretation of the burial remains

[13] To know more about the recent archeological discoveries at Susiana: http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/IS/ALIZADEH/NN_SPR97/NN_Spr97.html

[15] For a short survey of Turkestan prehistory: http://www.wamri.com/ex3_prehist.htm